Introduction

In the following post, we will explore how to get started with Amazon Relational Database Service (RDS) for PostgreSQL. CloudFormation will be used to build a PostgreSQL master database instance and a single read replica in a new VPC. AWS Systems Manager Parameter Store will be used to store our CloudFormation configuration values. Amazon RDS Event Notifications will send text messages to our mobile device to let us know when the RDS instances are ready for use. Once running, we will examine a variety of methods to interact with our database instances, including pgAdmin, Adminer, and Python.

Technologies

The primary technologies used in this post include the following.

PostgreSQL

According to its website, PostgreSQL, commonly known as Postgres, is the world’s most advanced Open Source relational database. Originating at UC Berkeley in 1986, PostgreSQL has more than 30 years of active core development. PostgreSQL has earned a strong reputation for its proven architecture, reliability, data integrity, robust feature set, extensibility. PostgreSQL runs on all major operating systems and has been ACID-compliant since 2001.

Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL

According to Amazon, Amazon Relational Database Service (RDS) provides six familiar database engines to choose from, including Amazon Aurora, PostgreSQL, MySQL, MariaDB, Oracle Database, and SQL Server. RDS is available on several database instance types - optimized for memory, performance, or I/O.

Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL makes it easy to set up, operate, and scale PostgreSQL deployments in the cloud. Amazon RDS supports the latest PostgreSQL version 11, which includes several enhancements to performance, robustness, transaction management, query parallelism, and more.

AWS CloudFormation

According to Amazon, CloudFormation provides a common language to describe and provision all the infrastructure resources within AWS-based cloud environments. CloudFormation allows you to use a JSON- or YAML-based template to model and provision all the resources needed for your applications across all AWS regions and accounts, in an automated and secure manner.

Demonstration

Architecture

Below, we see an architectural representation of what will be built in the demonstration. This is not a typical three-tier AWS architecture, wherein the RDS instances would be placed in private subnets (data tier) and accessible only by the application tier, running on AWS. The architecture for the demonstration is designed for interacting with RDS through external database clients such as pgAdmin, and applications like our local Python scripts, detailed later in the post.

Source Code

All source code for this post is available on GitHub in a single public repository, postgres-rds-demo.

.
├── LICENSE.md
├── README.md
├── cfn-templates
│   ├── event.template
│   ├── rds.template
├── parameter_store_values.sh
├── python-scripts
│   ├── create_pagila_data.py
│   ├── database.ini
│   ├── db_config.py
│   ├── query_postgres.py
│   ├── requirements.txt
│   └── unit_tests.py
├── sql-scripts
│   ├── pagila-insert-data.sql
│   └── pagila-schema.sql
└── stack.yml

To clone the GitHub repository, execute the following command.

git clone --branch master --single-branch --depth 1 --no-tags \
  https://github.com/garystafford/aws-rds-postgres.git

Prerequisites

For this demonstration, I will assume you already have an AWS account. Further, that you have the latest copy of the AWS CLI and Python 3 installed on your development machine. Optionally, for pgAdmin and Adminer, you will also need to have Docker installed.

Steps

In this demonstration, we will perform the following steps.

• Put CloudFormation configuration values in Parameter Store;
• Execute CloudFormation templates to create AWS resources;
• Execute SQL scripts using Python to populate the new database with sample data;
• Configure pgAdmin and Python connections to RDS PostgreSQL instances;

AWS Systems Manager Parameter Store

With AWS, it is typical to use services like AWS Systems Manager Parameter Store and AWS Secrets Manager to store overt, sensitive, and secret configuration values. These values are utilized by your code, or from AWS services like CloudFormation. Parameter Store allows us to follow the proper twelve-factor, cloud-native practice of separating configuration from code.

To demonstrate the use of Parameter Store, we will place a few of our CloudFormation configuration items into Parameter Store. The demonstration’s GitHub repository includes a shell script, parameter_store_values.sh, which will put the necessary parameters into Parameter Store.

Below, we see several of the demo’s configuration values, which have been put into Parameter Store.

SecureString

Whereas our other parameters are stored in Parameter Store as String datatypes, the database’s master user password is stored as a SecureString data-type. Parameter Store uses an AWS Key Management Service (KMS) customer master key (CMK) to encrypt the SecureString parameter value.

SMS Text Alert Option

Before running the Parameter Store script, you will need to change the /rds_demo/alert_phone parameter value in the script (shown below) to your mobile device number, including country code, such as ‘+12038675309’. Amazon SNS will use it to send SMS messages, using Amazon RDS Event Notification. If you don’t want to use this messaging feature, simply ignore this parameter and do not execute the event.template CloudFormation template in the proceeding step.

aws ssm put-parameter \
  --name /rds_demo/alert_phone \
  --type String \
  --value "your_phone_number_here" \
  --description "RDS alert SMS phone number" \
  --overwrite

Run the following command to execute the shell script, parameter_store_values.sh, which will put the necessary parameters into Parameter Store.

sh ./parameter_store_values.sh

CloudFormation Templates

The GitHub repository includes two CloudFormation templates, cfn-templates/event.template and cfn-templates/rds.template. This event template contains two resources, which are an AWS SNS Topic and an AWS RDS Event Subscription. The RDS template also includes several resources, including a VPC, Internet Gateway, VPC security group, two public subnets, one RDS master database instance, and an AWS RDS Read Replica database instance.

The resources are split into two CloudFormation templates so we can create the notification resources, first, independently of creating or deleting the RDS instances. This will ensure we get all our SMS alerts about both the creation and deletion of the databases.

Template Parameters

The two CloudFormation templates contain a total of approximately fifteen parameters. For most, you can use the default values I have set or chose to override them. Four of the parameters will be fulfilled from Parameter Store. Of these, the master database password is treated slightly differently because it is secure (encrypted in Parameter Store). Below is a snippet of the template showing both types of parameters. The last two are fulfilled from Parameter Store.

DBInstanceClass:
  Type: String
  Default: "db.t3.small"
DBStorageType:
  Type: String
  Default: "gp2"
DBUser:
  Type: String
  Default: "{{resolve:ssm:/rds_demo/master_username:1}}"
DBPassword:
  Type: String
  Default: "{{resolve:ssm-secure:/rds_demo/master_password:1}}"
  NoEcho: True

Choosing the default CloudFormation parameter values will result in two minimally-configured RDS instances running the PostgreSQL 11.4 database engine on a db.t3.small instance with 10 GiB of General Purpose (SSD) storage. The db.t3 DB instance is part of the latest generation burstable performance instance class. The master instance is not configured for Multi-AZ high availability. However, the master and read replica each run in a different Availability Zone (AZ) within the same AWS Region.

Parameter Versioning

When placing parameters into Parameter Store, subsequent updates to a parameter result in the version number of that parameter being incremented. Note in the examples above, the version of the parameter is required by CloudFormation, here, ‘1’. If you chose to update a value in Parameter Store, thus incrementing the parameter’s version, you will also need to update the corresponding version number in the CloudFormation template’s parameter.

{
    "Parameter": {
        "Name": "/rds_demo/rds_username",
        "Type": "String",
        "Value": "masteruser",
        "Version": 1,
        "LastModifiedDate": 1564962073.774,
        "ARN": "arn:aws:ssm:us-east-1:1234567890:parameter/rds_demo/rds_username"
    }
}

Validating Templates

Although I have tested both templates, I suggest validating the templates yourself, as you usually would for any CloudFormation template you are creating. You can use the AWS CLI CloudFormation validate-template CLI command to validate the template. Alternately, or I suggest additionally, you can use CloudFormation Linter, cfn-lint command.

aws cloudformation validate-template \
  --template-body file://cfn-templates/rds.template

cfn-lint -t cfn-templates/cfn-templates/rds.template

Create the Stacks

To execute the first CloudFormation template and create a CloudFormation Stack containing the two event notification resources, run the following create-stack CLI command.

aws cloudformation create-stack \
  --template-body file://cfn-templates/event.template \
  --stack-name RDSEventDemoStack

The first stack only takes less than one minute to create. Using the AWS CloudFormation Console, make sure the first stack completes successfully before creating the second stack with the command, below.

aws cloudformation create-stack \
  --template-body file://cfn-templates/rds.template \
  --stack-name RDSDemoStack

Wait for my Text

In my tests, the CloudFormation RDS stack takes an average of 25–30 minutes to create and 15–20 minutes to delete, which can seem like an eternity. You could use the AWS CloudFormation console (shown below) or continue to use the CLI to follow the progress of the RDS stack creation.

However, if you recall, the CloudFormation event template creates an AWS RDS Event Subscription. This resource will notify us when the databases are ready by sending text messages to our mobile device.

In the CloudFormation events template, the RDS Event Subscription is configured to generate Amazon Simple Notification Service (SNS) notifications for several specific event types, including RDS instance creation and deletion.

  MyEventSubscription:
    Properties:
      Enabled: true
      EventCategories:
        - availability
        - configuration change
        - creation
        - deletion
        - failover
        - failure
        - recovery
      SnsTopicArn:
        Ref: MyDBSNSTopic
      SourceType: db-instance
    Type: AWS::RDS::EventSubscription

Amazon SNS will send SMS messages to the mobile number you placed into Parameter Store. Below, we see messages generated during the creation of the two instances, displayed on an Apple iPhone.

Amazon RDS Dashboard

Once the RDS CloudFormation stack has successfully been built, the easiest way to view the results is using the Amazon RDS Dashboard, as shown below. Here we see both the master and read replica instances have been created and are available for our use.

The RDS dashboard offers CloudWatch monitoring of each RDS instance.

The RDS dashboard also provides detailed configuration information about each RDS instance.

The RDS dashboard’s Connection & security tab is where we can obtain connection information about our RDS instances, including the RDS instance’s endpoints. Endpoints information will be required in the next part of the demonstration.

Sample Data

Now that we have our PostgreSQL database instance and read replica successfully provisioned and configured on AWS, with an empty database, we need some test data. There are several sources of sample PostgreSQL databases available on the internet to explore. We will use the Pagila sample movie rental database by pgFoundry. Although the database is several years old, it provides a relatively complex relational schema (table relationships shown below) and plenty of sample data to query, about 100 database objects and 46K rows of data.

In the GitHub repository, I have included the two Pagila database SQL scripts required to install the sample database’s data structures (DDL), sql-scripts/pagila-schema.sql, and the data itself (DML), sql-scripts/pagila-insert-data.sql.

To execute the Pagila SQL scripts and install the sample data, I have included a Python script. If you do not want to use Python, you can skip to the Adminer section of this post. Adminer also has the capability to import SQL scripts.

Before running any of the included Python scripts, you will need to install the required Python packages and configure the database.ini file.

Python Packages

To install the required Python packages using the supplied python-scripts/requirements.txt file, run the below commands.

cd python-scripts
pip3 install --upgrade -r requirements.txt

We are using two packages, psycopg2 and configparser, for the scripts. Psycopg is a PostgreSQL database adapter for Python. According to their website, Psycopg is the most popular PostgreSQL database adapter for the Python programming language. The configparser module allows us to read configuration from files similar to Microsoft Windows INI files. The unittest package is required for a set of unit tests includes the project, but not discussed as part of the demo.

Database Configuration

The python-scripts/database.ini file, read by configparser, provides the required connection information to our RDS master and read replica instance’s databases. Use the input parameters and output values from the CloudFormation RDS template, or the Amazon RDS Dashboard to obtain the required connection information, as shown in the example, below. Your host values will be unique for your master and read replica. The host values are the instance’s endpoint, listed in the RDS Dashboard’s Configuration tab.

[docker]
host=localhost
port=5432
database=pagila
user=masteruser
password=5up3r53cr3tPa55w0rd

[master]
host=demo-instance.dkfvbjrazxmd.us-east-1.rds.amazonaws.com
port=5432
database=pagila
user=masteruser
password=5up3r53cr3tPa55w0rd

[replica]
host=demo-replica.dkfvbjrazxmd.us-east-1.rds.amazonaws.com
port=5432
database=pagila
user=masteruser
password=5up3r53cr3tPa55w0rd

With the INI file configured, run the following command, which executes a supplied Python script, python-scripts/create_pagila_data.py, to create the data structure and insert sample data into the master RDS instance’s Pagila database. The database will be automatically replicated to the RDS read replica instance. From my local laptop, I found the Python script takes approximately 40 seconds to create all 100 database objects and insert 46K rows of movie rental data. That is compared to about 13 seconds locally, using a Docker-based instance of PostgreSQL.

python3 ./create_pagila_data.py --instance master

The Python script’s primary function, create_pagila_db(), reads and executes the two external SQL scripts.

def create_pagila_db():
    """
    Creates Pagila database by running DDL and DML scripts
    """

    try:
        global conn
        with conn:
            with conn.cursor() as curs:
                curs.execute(open("../sql-scripts/pagila-schema.sql", "r").read())
                curs.execute(open("../sql-scripts/pagila-insert-data.sql", "r").read())
                conn.commit()
                print('Pagila SQL scripts executed')
    except (psycopg2.OperationalError, psycopg2.DatabaseError, FileNotFoundError) as err:
        print(create_pagila_db.__name__, err)
        close_conn()
        exit(1)

If the Python script executes correctly, you should see output indicating there are now 28 tables in our master RDS instance’s database.

pgAdmin

pgAdmin is a favorite tool for interacting with and managing PostgreSQL databases. According to its website, pgAdmin is the most popular and feature-rich Open Source administration and development platform for PostgreSQL.

The project includes an optional Docker Swarm stack.yml file. The stack will create a set of three Docker containers, including a local copy of PostgreSQL 11.4, Adminer, and pgAdmin 4. Having a local copy of PostgreSQL, using the official Docker image, is helpful for development and trouble-shooting RDS issues.

Use the following commands to deploy the Swarm stack.

# create stack
docker swarm init
docker stack deploy -c stack.yml postgres

# get status of new containers
docker stack ps postgres --no-trunc
docker container ls

If you do not want to spin up the whole Docker Swarm stack, you could use the docker run command to create just a single pgAdmin Docker container. The pgAdmin 4 Docker image being used is the image recommended by pgAdmin.

docker pull dpage/pgadmin4

docker run -p 81:80 \
  -e "PGADMIN_DEFAULT_EMAIL=user@domain.com" \
  -e "PGADMIN_DEFAULT_PASSWORD=SuperSecret" \
  -d dpage/pgadmin4

docker container ls | grep pgadmin4

Database Server Configuration

Once pgAdmin is up and running, we can configure the master and read replica database servers (RDS instances) using the connection string information from your database.ini file or from the Amazon RDS Dashboard. Below, I am configuring the master RDS instance (server).

With that task complete, below, we see the master RDS instance and the read replica, as well as my local Docker instance configured in pgAdmin (left side of screengrab). Note how the Pagila database has been replicated automatically, from the RDS master to the read replica instance.

Building SQL Queries

Switching to the Query tab, we can run regular SQL queries against any of the database instances. Below, I have run a simple SELECT query against the master RDS instance’s Pagila database, returning the complete list of movie titles, along with their genre and release date.

The pgAdmin Query tool even includes an Explain tab to view a graphical representation of the same query, very useful for optimization. Here we see the same query, showing an analysis of the execution order. A popup window displays information about the selected object.

Query the Read Replica

To demonstrate the use of the read replica, below I’ve run the same query against the RDS read replica’s copy of the Pagila database. Any schema and data changes against the master instance are replicated to the read replica(s).

Adminer

Adminer is another good general-purpose database management tool, similar to pgAdmin, but with a few different capabilities. According to its website, with Adminer, you get a tidy user interface, rich support for multiple databases, performance, and security, all from a single PHP file. Adminer is my preferred tool for database admin tasks. Amazingly, Adminer works with MySQL, MariaDB, PostgreSQL, SQLite, MS SQL, Oracle, SimpleDB, Elasticsearch, and MongoDB.

Below, we see the Pagila database’s tables and views displayed in Adminer, along with some useful statistical information about each database object.

Similar to pgAdmin, we can also run queries, along with other common development and management tasks, from within the Adminer interface.

Import Pagila with Adminer

Another great feature of Adminer is the ability to easily import and export data. As an alternative to Python, you could import the Pagila data using Adminer’s SQL file import function. Below, you see an example of importing the Pagila database objects into the Pagila database, using the file upload function.

IDE

For writing my AWS infrastructure as code files and Python scripts, I prefer JetBrains PyCharm Professional Edition (v19.2). PyCharm, like all the JetBrains IDEs, has the ability to connect to and manage PostgreSQL database. You can write and run SQL queries, including the Pagila SQL import scripts. Microsoft Visual Studio Code is another excellent, free choice, available on multiple platforms.

Python and RDS

Although our IDE, pgAdmin, and Adminer are useful to build and test our queries, ultimately, we still need to connect to the Amazon RDS PostgreSQL instances and perform data manipulation from our application code. The GitHub repository includes a sample python script, python-scripts/query_postgres.py. This script uses the same Python packages and connection functions as our Pagila data creation script we ran earlier. This time we will perform the same SELECT query using Python as we did previously with pgAdmin and Adminer.

cd python-scripts
python3 ./query_postgres.py --instance master

With a successful database connection established, the scripts primary function, get_movies(return_count), performs the SELECT query. The function accepts an integer representing the desired number of movies to return from the SELECT query. A separate function within the script handles closing the database connection when the query is finished.

def get_movies(return_count=100):
    """
    Queries for all films, by genre and year
    """

    try:
        global conn
        with conn:
            with conn.cursor() as curs:
                curs.execute("""
                    SELECT title AS title, name AS genre, release_year AS released
                    FROM film f
                             JOIN film_category fc
                                  ON f.film_id = fc.film_id
                             JOIN category c
                                  ON fc.category_id = c.category_id
                    ORDER BY title
                    LIMIT %s;
                """, (return_count,))

                movies = []
                row = curs.fetchone()
                while row is not None:
                    movies.append(row)
                    row = curs.fetchone()

                return movies
    except (psycopg2.OperationalError, psycopg2.DatabaseError) as err:
        print(get_movies.__name__, err)
    finally:
        close_conn()


def main():
    set_connection('docker')
    for movie in get_movies(10):
        print('Movie: {0}, Genre: {1}, Released: {2}'
              .format(movie[0], movie[1], movie[2]))

Below, we see an example of the Python script’s formatted output, limited to only the first ten movies.

Using the Read Replica

For better application performance, it may be optimal to redirect some or all of the database reads to the read replica, while leaving writes, updates, and deletes to hit the master instance. The script can be easily modified to execute the same query against the read replica rather than the master RDS instance by merely passing the desired section, ‘replica’ versus ‘master’, in the call to the set_connection(section) function. The section parameter refers to one of the two sections in the database.ini file. The configparser module will handle retrieving the correct connection information.

set_connection('replica')

Cleaning Up

When you are finished with the demonstration, the easiest way to clean up all the AWS resources and stop getting billed is to delete the two CloudFormation stacks using the AWS CLI, in the following order.

aws cloudformation delete-stack \
  --stack-name RDSDemoStack

# wait until the above resources are completely deleted
aws cloudformation delete-stack \
  --stack-name RDSEventDemoStack

You should receive the following SMS notifications as the first CloudFormation stack is being deleted.

You can delete the running Docker stack using the following command. Note, you will lose all your pgAdmin server connection information, along with your local Pagila database.

docker stack rm postgres

Conclusion

In this brief post, we just scraped the surface of the many benefits and capabilities of Amazon RDS for PostgreSQL. The best way to learn PostgreSQL and the benefits of Amazon RDS is by setting up your own RDS instance, insert some sample data, and start writing queries in your favorite database client or programming language.

All opinions expressed in this post are my own and not necessarily the views of my current or past employers or their clients.